Many of us learned in grade school that Christopher Columbus discovered America. We now know that's not true. How many people knew about the continents of the Western Hemisphere before Columbus landed in 1492? Well, there were the 60 million or so people who lived here. And Leif Erickson, who sailed to various parts of Canada, which he named Helluland, Markland, and Vinland. There is Greenland, which was known to Northern Europeans from antiquity but is only technically part of North America. And it turns out that the lands beyond the Atlantic were known to southern Europeans as well, as documented by a friar in Milan named Galvaneus Flamma. His unfinished written work Cronica universalis references "terra que dicitur Marckalada," in English, "the land that is called Markalada." The book is date to around the year 1345.

Galvaneus’s reference, probably derived by oral sources heard in Genoa, is the first mention of the American continent in the Mediterranean region, and gives evidence of the circulation (out of the Nordic area and 150 years before Columbus) of narratives about lands beyond Greenland. This article provides a transcription of the passage, explains its context in the Cronica universalis, compares it to the other (Nordic) references of Markland, and discusses the possible origin of Galvaneus’s mention of Markland in light of Galvaneus’s biography and working method.

Yeah, sailors talk, and it stands to reason that a lot of that talk would be about exotic faraway places they've either been to or heard about. Did Columbus know about Galvaneus’s document? Probably not, as it was never published. But did he know about Markland? Columbus was a sailor from Genoa, Italy, so he might have heard those same legendary stories from other sailors, or after an extra century, maybe not. Read the full paper at Terrae Incognitae, or the shorter excerpted version at TYWKIWDBI.

The movie No Time to Die is opening nationwide on October 8. It will be the final installment of the James Bond franchise with Daniel Craig as agent 007. Six actors have played the role so far, not counting David Niven in the 1967 non-canon spoof Casino Royale. Who has been the best Bond? That's all a matter of opinion. Someone said the best Bond is the one that was around when you were 13. That may be true, because I was gripped as a child by the adventures of Sean Connery, then as a teenager I enjoyed the humor of Roger Moore. The movies of the '70s were so over-the-top because of the ridiculous notion that movies could continue to be released with the same characters, tropes, and basic plots for years on end. It was a different time.

Each Bond is also a product of their time. Connery was a hero when the Cold War was hot. Moore came along when the sheer length of that Cold War gave us all a case of nihilism. And I've heard that Daniel Craig is a serious Bond for a serious time.

You might guess that George Lazenby ranked at the bottom, and you'd be right. He only lasted for one film. I haven't seen any of the more recent Bonds, so I have no real problem with the list, but you might. Check it out at Insider, and let us know what you think. -via Fark

I don't know if they still do it, but those paint flinging contraptions were pretty popular at school carnivals when I was a teenager. For a quarter, you could take home your own original piece of psychedelic art. I suppose they aren't as common as they once were, because Gav and Dan, the Slow Mo Guys, made their own. They also put the paper under the disc instead of on top, and added paint before the flinging begins. What's the fun in that? The fun is in their slow-motion videography, as we can see how paint moves and creates gloriously colorful swirls, globs, and messes. They way they spun the background to stabilize the view of the disc makes it much easier to see what's really happening with the paint. Cosmic.

In the 18th and 19th centuries, children died of diphtheria in astonishing numbers. Adults contracted the disease, too, but were less likely to die. The name of the disease is based on the Greek word for leather, because those infected developed a tough leathery buildup of dead cells in the throat that obstructed swallowing and ultimately, breathing. There was nothing anyone could do about the disease, until 1883 when a unique bacterium (Corynebacterium diphtheriae) was discovered in a victim's throat tissue. That discovery began a fascinating chain of event involving doctors and scientists living in far-flung nations. Years later, another doctor found that the bacterium did not cause the disease, but it produced a poison that did. Others used the toxin to create antibodies against the toxin, a trick learned from research on tetanus. This antitoxin would not stimulate a victim's immune system, but it could treat diphtheria, which is why Balto and many other sled dogs ran through Alaska in 1925. Eventually, a vaccine was developed by refining the antitoxin to stimulate a child's own immune system.

Today, diphtheria is almost unknown in the US, with only six cases recorded since 2000. There are only a few thousand cases worldwide every year, mainly in countries where the vaccine program has been disrupted. Read the amazing story of the 40-or-so year period when the race to defeat diphtheria brought the world of medical science together at Smithsonian.  

The origins of many property regulations come about because someone pushed the limits of common sense long ago. And we still see examples of someone flouting those regulations because the resulting buildings were grandfathered in, or may even be the cause of a certain regulation. We've read tales of spite houses, but there are more of these than you might know, as Mental Floss' latest collection shows. The grander a spite construction, the more likely it is to have survived, and the stories behind them can be fascinating. Mess with someone's property, and feel their wrath. A typical spite building is one built on a piece of land thought too small, due to government seizure of part of a plot or by a seemingly unfair inheritance. Or, in the case of the Montlake House, shown above, a divorce settlement.    

Whatever the origins of the wedge-shaped Montlake House in Seattle, Washington, built in 1925, spite is baked into its blueprint. According to one story, a woman walked away from a nasty divorce with an awkwardly-laid-out piece of land. Instead of leaving it empty like her ex-husband must have hoped for, she built a pie-slice-shaped home that fit perfectly onto the property. Another legend says that the structure went up when someone down the road offered to buy the land for an insultingly low amount. The owner got their revenge by erecting the odd building to block their neighbor's view. Today, the spite house—which is 15 feet wide on one end and 55 inches at the other, just wide enough for a door—is a treasured Seattle landmark. In 2018, it hit the market for $600,000. —M.D.

But it's not just houses. Or even hotels or castles, although those are included. There have been entire manufacturing companies founded out of spite, some that are now household names. There's also a sad tale that may be the origin of the phrase "cut off your nose to spite your face" in this mega-list at Mental Floss.

(Image credit: Joe Mabel)

This sign, simply saying "Tom McCleod Slept Here," appears on Interest 5 near Bakersfield in California. There are no buildings nearby, and no people to ask about it. It's been there since at least 2009, when it was captured on Google Street View. People have written about the sign, but everyone has the same question. Who is Tom McCleod? SFGate looked into the mystery, and found an urban legend with no evidence to support it -which may have been made up on the spot. They also found four men named Tom McCleod. The four Toms had heard about the sign, and have seen it, but none ever slept near that patch of highway.   

The fourth Tom McCleod they got hold of lives in Texas, and provided about the only intriguing piece of information they ever got.

While he’s familiar with the sign on I-5, living on the border of Texas and Arkansas means he’s seen stretches of road that few Californians have driven.

And “Tom McCleod slept here” signs are in Texas and Arkansas, too, he says. Louisiana and Mississippi, as well.

But he has no idea who the guy is.

From that information, I have to believe that Tom McCleod is a sign maker. Or the pseudonym of a sign maker. Is this a "social experiment" or some kind of art? Could it possibly be advertising? It might just be a prank, one that others have emulated in other parts of the country. Read about the sign and the search for Tom McCleod at SFGate. -via Strange Company

(Image credit: Flickr user Joe Mud)

When the British came to America, the explorers paved the way, and settlers came afterward, but the categories were blurred for a while. The earliest settlers were almost all men looking for adventure and possible riches in the New World. The Virginia Tobacco Company supported settlements in the Chesapeake Bay area while their crops were being developed. The men there suffered from a lack of women, so the company brought some over from England. The first shipment of brides was a disaster, as the woman who volunteered had little to offer, and apparently traveled to America out of desperation. The company needed to impose some standards, but still attract women ready for the unknown.

The Virginia Tobacco Company began to recruit women who knew how to make alcoholic beverages: beer, cider, and liquor. After all, it was an honest skill, and the settlers were suffering from a lack of grog. They didn't know how to make it because that was women's work. The women who were brought to the colonies in the 1600s were in high demand, not only as wives, but as providers of a stiff drink. It wasn't easy, as the materials available in the New World were different from what they were used to, but the women found a way to make it work. Read their story at Atlas Obscura.

Occasionally we run across a story in which the government lists someone as dead when they are not. It's a nightmare for an individual who is suddenly thrust into a battle with a massive bureaucracy. And it happens more than you think- about 12,000 people a year are incorrectly listed as dead in the US alone! When the Social Security administration thinks you are deceased, everyone else does, too, including the DMV, your bank, your credit card company, etc. etc. Trying to prove you're alive by showing up in person doesn't cut it, because you could be an identity thief. Who are they going to believe, you or government documents? Half as Interesting explains the problem, but the "solution" is really just a punch line. -via Digg

We know that quite a bit of what Americans see as Chinese food is not really Chinese. In China, you won't get fortune cookies at the end of a meal, and you won't find General Tso's Chicken on the menu, either. And now we learn that the ubiquitous folding takeout box we are so familiar with isn't Chinese, either!

The design was patented by an American named Frederick Weeks Wilcox in 1894. But the box wasn't for Chinese takeout at all. Its purpose was to carry oysters. The oyster pail was designed to be waterproof, easy to assemble, and able to allow steam to escape from the top. When it was invented, oysters were sold all over New York City, because they were plentiful and therefore affordable. The transition to carrying Chinese food in them happened due to changes in the oyster market and in the rise of Chinese restaurants occurring at the same time. Today, it's hard to think of anything else when we see that small folded paper box with its distinct bucket shape. Read how the Chinese takeout box came about at The Dieline. -via Kottke

The transportation research firm Skytrax crunched the numbers from 13 million customer surveys over the last two years to come up with ranking for the top airlines. There were 356 airlines represented in those surveys. The surveys asked about things like friendliness, ease of booking, seat comfort, meals, and in-flight entertainment. You can imagine that international flights were overly represented, since domestic flights don't have meals and entertainment these days, at least not in the US. It's not clear whether price was a factor in the rankings, but considering who came in at #1, the cost of tickets probably wasn't part of the equation.

1. Qatar Airways
2. Singapore Airlines
3. ANA All Nippon Airways
4. Emirates
5. Japan Airlines
6. Cathay Pacific Airways
7. EVA Air
8. Qantas Airways
9. Hainan Airlines
10. Air France

Note to self: when naming an airline, use a "Q" without a "u." You may have noticed that no US-based airline made the list. There is a separate ranking of North American airlines, which you can see at CNBC. -via Digg

From 1961 to 1989, the Berlin Wall separated the city into sectors controlled by Communist East Germany and by West Germany. West Berlin was completely surround by East Germany, but was considered part of West Germany as agreed when the country was partitioned by Allied forces after World War II. For decades, people risked their lives to cross into West Berlin. Many were shot, but others were successful. Of several clandestine tunnels dug underneath the wall, Tunnel 57 was the deepest, at 30 feet below ground. It led from a backyard outhouse to an abandoned bakery in West Berlin. In October of 1964, a daring escape took 57 East Berliners through the tunnel, but not without bloodshed.

Andreas Springer was one of the 57 people who escaped by crawling several hundred feet on all fours through the narrow tunnel. For decades he rarely spoke of how he got out of East Germany. Now 78 years old, Springer tells us about that fateful night in an article at Atlas Obscura.

(Image credit: N-Lange.de)

In 1954, schoolchildren in the Gorbals section of Glasgow, Scotland, heard that a vampire had killed two local boys. Angered and hoping to be heroes, several hundred children made their way to the Southern Necropolis, the neighborhood's largest cemetery, because where else would a vampire hide? They climbed the cemetery walls carrying homemade weapons and making plenty of noise. Glasgow police were astonished to find who was making the ruckus. There were so many children that the event went down in history, although it wasn't the only time that Glasgow children went hunting for monsters.

What spurred the children into such a stunt? It couldn't possibly be a distraction from the misery of the poverty-stricken Gorbals area. It couldn't possibly be the long tradition of Scottish ghosts and monsters the children heard about all their lives. It must have been the comic books. Read how the Gorbals Vampire Hunt led to a Scottish ban on horror comics that is still on the books (yet rarely enforced) at Mental Floss.

(Image credit: Magnus Hagdorn)

Sada Yacco introduced kabuki theater to the West and became a sensation as the only female member of her troupe. Her life story reads like that of Forrest Gump. Born under unfortunate circumstances, Yacco was sold to a geisha house when she was only four years old. Yet she was singled out to be trained in not only the arts, but martial arts and other manly pursuits as well. She was also taught to read and write, a rarity for Japanese women of the time. In 1893 she married experimental showman Otojiro Kawakami and continued her lifelong series of alternating bad luck and celebrity interactions that made her a star when Kawakami took his kabuki theater to the United States and then Europe.  

A Western fascination with Japan at the time helped launch Yacco into stardom, but it was tinged with pressure to perform stereotypical Japanese tropes to satisfy the audiences' notions of Japanese theater. Eventually, Yacco and Kawakami returned to Japan, where they introduced Western theater, particularly Shakespeare, to their homeland -with an experimental twist, of course. Read about Sada Yacco and her multicultural adventures at Messy Nessy Chic. 

It's an event we look forward to every year. The voting has started in the 2021 Fat Bear Week competition! Every year since 2014, Katmai National Park in Alaska shows off their many brown bears in an online tournament. The bears have spent their summer putting on pounds to help them get through winter hibernation, so for them, fat is a good thing. It's a bit dangerous to put bears on a scale, so weight gain must be estimated by pictures. The fattest bears, plus one fat bear cub that won a play-in poll, are competing for nothing but internet fame, yet the tournament draws human attention to Alaska's wildlife and the challenges they face. Some bears have also gained lifelong fans by packing on the pounds. We're glad to see Otis back, and Holly, a previous winner who took last year off to raise a cub. The daily elimination polls can be found here. The daily matchups will continue through October 5, and the winner will be announced a few days later.

When is a species considered extinct—when it no longer exists in the wild or when it no longer exists at all?

The cactus species Mammillaria tezontle evolved to grow on a mineral produced from lava called tezontle. An exposed piece of tezontle is the only place you will ever find this cactus in the wild. In Mexico, tezontle is extremely useful as a building material because it is strong and lightweight, so it is dug up and used when discovered. In fact, the cactus M. tezontle was discovered and identified as a species at a quarry. With supplies of the rock tezontle dwindling, the cactus is thought to be near-extinct in the wild.

But there are plenty of M. tezontle plants growing all over the world- in clay pots in people's homes. It turns out that the cactus will grow in garden center potting soil formulated for cacti. It has traveled all over by both legal and illegal means. It is not a particularly large, pretty, or useful cactus, but its very rarity drives people to own and propagate it.

That brings up a question of species conservation: Should we keep a species going when its natural environment is completely gone? The cactus Mammillaria tezontle may live forever as a houseplant, but it is only an example that brings up the larger question of polar bears and other familiar creatures. Read the story of M. tezontle at The Walrus. -via Damn Interesting