Here is an experiment in operant conditioning, in which the subject must learn that a certain behavior will produce a reward. In this case, we will see whether Abram, a toddler, and Haru, a very good dog, will ring a bell to get a bite of their favorite cheese. Of course they will. What's more interesting are the confounding factors: Abram finds ringing the bell is fun regardless of the cheese, and Haru wants to please her humans more than anything. Overall, the outcome is irrelevant to the value of the video -it's just so darn cute. -via Boing Boing

When we try to define what it means to be human, we look for features that are 1. universal among humans and 2. not found in any other animals. Laughter falls into both categories, and is also a collective activity that binds us together. It's even contagious -among humans.

Building on these insights, scores of theorists have attempted to explain why humans evolved to be the species that laughs. One classic idea is the Superiority Theory, according to which the loudest laughs were originally cries of triumph made at the expense of the enemy. Another is the Relief Theory, in which laughter is thought to have evolved long before words or grammar, as an instinctive way of signalling that danger had passed and everyone could relax. Finally, the Ambivalence Theory holds that laughter erupts as a means of escape from contradictory emotions or perceptions.

What these ideas have in common is their focus on individual psychology. In each case, the thinking is that tension is released with the sudden realisation that there is nothing to fear. For supporters of the Superiority Theory, the initial threat comes from other people who are suddenly exposed as harmless. The Relief Theory agrees that we laugh upon realising we are safe. The Ambivalence theory also proposes that laughter arises when a mental or physical challenge or paradox suddenly dissolves.

Then again, to be honest, we once thought big brains made us human until we studied dolphins, and then though tool use made us human until we met crows. But laughter as a particularly human trait offers an intriguing theory, which you can read about at Aeon. -via Digg

For the past month, every time I've walked past a gas station with my girlfriend, I've turned the price of gas into a spot for a fictional Ontario FM radio station pic.twitter.com/9BvCKEQiu4

— ℳatt (@matttomic) February 2, 2019

Taking advantage of gas prices in Ontario that fall into the FM radio frequency spectrum, @matttomic has developed a habit of voicing a promo for a fictional radio station out of the posted price every time he and his girlfriend walk past a gas station. He's trying to make her laugh (and succeeding), but as time went on, he had to stretch his imagination ever further. A radio station that plays only standup comic routines? Vintage radio plays? Where will it all end?  -via Metafilter

Pistachios have always been popular among those who knew about them, but America didn't produce a commercial crop of pistachios until 1976, which explains why I thought "pistachio" was just a color when I was young. Pistachio trees require certain conditions that made growing them in Iran profitable, but not so much in the US. Any successful trees take a decade to mature, and then only produce pistachios every other year.

The botanically inclined experimented with planting the precious trees in the American South and California. But the true start to pistachio domination came with the founding of the Chico New Plant Introduction Station in the early 20th century. Paraphrasing a favorite sci-fi quote, Ferguson says that part of the USDA’s goal is to explore “new worlds” of plants. In 1929, the station sent William E. Whitehouse, a deciduous tree researcher, to Iran. His mission: to collect pistachio seeds for planting.

For six months, Whitehouse searched, gradually collecting 20 pounds of different pistachios. Some came from the Agah family in Rafsanjan, who, Hejri notes, is still the main producer of pistachios in the area. After Whitehouse’s return to Chico, the station planted and evaluated 3,000 trees. Only one pistachio rose above the others. Sourced from the Agah orchard, it was given the name “Kerman.”

That was only one tree, which had to be fertilized by another, and then regrown to develop a true variety, with at least ten years between each generation. But the American pistachio market got a shot in the arm in the late '70s, and now the US has 178,000 acres planted with pistachio trees. Read the history of American pistachios at Atlas Obscura.

(Image credit: Stan Shebs)

BBC Earth released a gorgeous trailer for five new television nature series to look forward to. In January, the first two were announced. Green Planet will consist of five one-hour episodes looking at the world through the perspective of plants. One Planet, Seven Worlds will be a seven-episode series featuring the wildlife of a different continent in each, narrated by by Sir David Attenborough. Last week, we were introduced to three more new series.

Perfect Planet will be a unique fusion of blue chip natural history and earth sciences explaining how the living planet operates. This five part series will show how the forces of nature - weather, ocean currents, solar energy and volcanoes - drive, shape and support Earth’s great diversity of life. It will broadcast in 2020

Frozen Planet II will take audiences back to the wildernesses of the Arctic and Antarctica. Ten years on from the original Frozen Planet, this series tells the complete story of the entire frozen quarter of our planet that’s locked in ice and blanketed in snow. It will broadcast in 2021

Planet Earth III will be the most ambitious natural history landmark ever undertaken by the BBC. Combining the awe and wonder of the original Planet Earth, the new science and discoveries of Blue Planet II and Planet Earth II, and the immersive character-led storytelling of Dynasties, the series will take the Planet Earth experience to new heights. It will broadcast in 2022

-via Kottke

San Francisco city officials told the staff of a firehouse that they will have to get rid of their cat, Edna. The SFFD notified Station 49 that Edna must go by today. The firefighters (as well as medics, EMTs, and other staff) of Station 49 are fighting back. They reached out to SFGATE and other media outlets for help.  

Edna became a part of station life four years ago, when she first began visiting Station 49 as a feral cat. From there, the email went on to explain, she grew to become a part of their group.

"We slowly started to show her love and care, and she [became] our family," the email reads. "Now she is always there, and is the most docile, loving baby.

"We take her to the vet now, give her treats and she calls our station home now," the letter continued. "As I'm sure you can imagine, our jobs are very, very stressful. A lot of us see Edna as our little stress unit."

People across social media have taken up Edna's cause, including other firehouses, and have even started a petition. The city fire chief has not responded to calls from newspapers or TV. Read the story so far at SFGATE. See more of Edna at Instagram. -via Nag on the Lake

Update: The city did not back down, and Edna left the station to go live in a private home Monday. Station 49 will continue the fight to get her back to her chosen home in the firehouse. 

This awesome vehicle is the work of automotive artist Randy Grubb. The look of the Magic Bus was inspired by the Jupiter 2's transport tube in the TV show Lost in Space. The bus was publicly unveiled at the 70th Annual Grand National Roadster Show in January. As you might have guessed, it is a seamless masterpiece on the outside, and a Frankenstein's monster of various components on the inside.

The 1960s Haight-Ashbury inspired bus incorporates the nose of a 1947 Divco truck, America’s iconic milk truck, and a 23-window Volkswagen Kombi van. The chassis is from a 1973 GMC motorhome and the vehicle is powered by a 455 Olds engine. Grubb fashioned the front bumpers from those of a ’49 Plymouth and a ’57 Corvette, while the rear is styled after the ’59 VW bus bumpers.

See an entire gallery of Magic Bus images, including the interior, at Hot Rod Network. -via Everlasting Blort

Old-fashioned hand-drawn animation is becoming more and more rare. It's even more special when it's from a guy doodling in his notebook! This sequence was made by 如月二重6 Kisaragi Hutae 6. -via Digg

The Terminator came out in 1984, followed by the bigger and better movie Terminator 2: Judgment Day in 1991. The franchise was so valuable that three other movies followed -and they were not good. So for Terminator 6, with Linda Hamilton returning as Sarah Connor, they took a page out of Halloween's playbook and decided to just ignore the bad sequels.  

Now, Cameron is headed back to Terminator’s less-than-hopeful future for the first time since 1991’s action classic Terminator 2: Judgment Day. The writer-director is serving as executive producer on the Tim Miller-helmed sixth entry in the franchise, which will reset the continuity clock back to Judgment Day, erasing the subsequent sequels Rise of the Machines (2003), Salvation (2009) and Genisys (2015) from the timeline. And while Sarah Connor appeared to avert the machine uprising at the end of T2, the proposed title for the new Terminator — due in theaters on Nov. 1 — makes it clear that there’s plenty of darkness still ahead. “We’re calling it, Terminator: Dark Fate,” Cameron reveals. “That’s our working title right now.”

Read, or listen to, the rest of an interview with James Cameron about Terminator 6: Dark Fate at Yahoo Entertainment.  -via io9

Stephen Bishop wasn't the first to explore Mammoth Cave, and he wasn't the first tour guide. But he discovered and mapped many miles of Mammoth Cave, named its features, and guided tourists through the depth for twenty years. No one knew more about the cave than Bishop, although two guides he trained came close. None of the three had any say in their career choice, because they were slaves.    

In 1838, Bishop, then 17, was brought to the cave by his owner, Franklin Gorin, a lawyer who wanted to turn the site into a tourist attraction. Using ropes and a flickering lantern, Bishop traversed the unknown caverns, discovering tunnels, crossing black pits, and sailing on Mammoth’s underground rivers. It was dangerous work. While today much of the cave is lit by electrical lights and cleared of rubble, Bishop faced a complex honeycomb filled with sinkholes, cracks, fissures, boulders, domes and underwater springs. A blown-out lantern meant isolation in profound darkness and silence. With no sensory impute, the threat of becoming permanently lost was very real. Yet it’s hard to overstate Bishop’s influence; some of the branches he explored weren’t found again until modern equipment was invented and the map he made by memory of the cave was used for decades.

As Mammoth Cave was developed for tourism, Bishop led so many people through its wonders that he became a celebrity. Read about Stephen Bishop and his exploits in the world's longest cave at Smithsonian.

(Image credit: TradingCardsNPS)

Political campaign songs go back hundreds of years, but in the age of TV and archival recordings are more important now than ever. It's not a simple task to select the perfect song to go along with serious speeches and advertising, and many politicians end up with songs that make you scratch your head. A list from Mental Floss doesn't separate the best from the worst (which may be a matter of opinion), but does give the stories behind some of the more memorable choices.

1. Saddam Hussein: "I Will Always Love You"

Iraqi dictator Saddam Hussein’s selection of Whitney Houston’s "I Will Always Love You" for his sham campaign in 2002 is perhaps the most wonderful, if nonsensical, choice of a campaign song in political history. Syrian pop star Mayyada Bselees’ Arabic cover of the soaring love ballad (written and originally performed by Dolly Parton) was broadcast on dawn-to-dusk radio spots from Baghdad to Basra endorsing the mustachioed autocrat—just before the U.S.-led bombing campaign began in 2003.

Another thing you should know before you tackle the list is that no songs from the 2020 presidential race are included, even though one candidate has been holding campaign rallies for two years now. The stories that are included range from pretty good to "what were they thinking?"

Major Blueberry has a particular set of skills. He also has such dedication to his mission that he is willing to give his life to protect his assigned protectee. And he's too humble to accept a medal for his bravery. Or maybe just too feline.  -via Geeks Are Sexy

It's been twenty years since The Matrix revealed that we are all living in a computer simulation. The film's combination of science fiction, action, and philosophy scored big with moviegoers, and The Matrix won four Academy Awards and spawned two sequels. It also became an avatar for life in the 21st century.

It’s not that the film was prescient. It didn’t anticipate our world. But it anticipated — and probably created — a new way of viewing that world. Since 1999, the real world has provided ample opportunity for people to turn The Matrix into the foundational text of a frighteningly thorough and self-adoring denial of whatever was in front of their noses, which roughly translates as, Reality is fake and I don’t have to listen to anyone about anything (plus maybe I know karate despite never having studied it).

The Matrix didn't just anticipate the future, it also influenced the future. Vulture drew together more than a dozen writers and editors to list 19 ways that elements of The Matrix are a part of life today. Many of the ideas listed have links to expanded explanations. -via Digg

A ghost is the apparition of a being that is not really there. A ghost apple is the same, made of ice, although the apples were there once. Ice covered the apple trees in an orchard in western Michigan. When Andrew Sietsema went out to prune the trees, he saw -and photographed- apples of ice.  

"I guess it was just cold enough that the ice covering the apple hadn't melted yet, but it was warm enough that the apple inside turned to complete mush (apples have a lower freezing point than water)," Sietsema told CNN.

"And when I pruned a tree it would be shaken in the process, and the mush would slip out of the bottom of the 'ghost apple.'"

Precise weather conditions create all kind of amazing phenomena we wouldn't believe if people didn't have cameras ready to give us evidence. See more pictures of the ghost apples at CNN.  -via Metafilter

(Image credit: Andrew Sietsema)

A brilliant new invention was introduced to the public in this video from 1939. The Sonovox applied sound effects to one's throat, which the person could then form into words with his/her mouth -no voice needed! The Sonovox later evolved into the "talk box," which fed sound through a tube into a singer's mouth, most memorably in Peter Frampton's song "Do You Feel Like We Do." Oh yeah, try to guess who the lady demonstrating the device is before they introduce her. (via Boing Boing)