Cleopatra. Hatshepsut. Boudica. Seondeok. Wu Zetian. These are only some of the famous female rulers of antiquity. Their names live on in history, and notice that none of them bear any surname, except for the Chinese empress who carried her family name. That is because the Chinese have a longer history of using family names which started in 2000 BC.

Most other ancient civilizations didn't have surnames or family names as we have them today. In the West, the practice of having surnames started after the Norman Conquest of 1066. The reason was simple. They needed to distinguish between people who had the same given names in the same area.

In the Arab world, patronymics have been used since at least the 6th century AD. Family names indicated a person's tribe, profession, a famous ancestor, or place of origin. In ancient Greece, patronymics were also used, although they are a bit complicated if one does not know the structure of the language.

The Romans also used naming conventions. The nomen gentilicum, or nomen for short, referred to one's gens (family or clan) by patrilineal descent. In the Roman Republic, men usually had three names: the praenomen, the nomen, and the cognomen. Essentially, those refer to the given name, family name, and some kind of title or nickname to distinguish someone, usually describing a military feat that the individual achieved. Women, on the other hand, rarely had a praenomen, only being referred to by their nomen.

Since the Middle ages, we have been using surnames passed down from one generation to the next. In some cultures, when women get married, they get to keep their surnames and simply add their husband's name to their own. In others, married women carry their husband's surname. The map above shows which countries have a majority of women carrying their own surname or their husband's surname.

Many Asian, African, and Latin American countries have majority of their women carrying their own last name, while most Western societies have majority of their women carrying their husband's last name.

The more interesting part of this post are the comments by Redditors, particularly about the Spanish tradition of married women keeping both surnames, which they also passed onto their colonies. There's even further discussion about how the names would be ordered.

Traditionally, the children would take the father's surname first and then their mother's surname. For example, if Juan García Pérez and María López Sánchez have a son named Pedro, then he will be called Pedro García López. However, as many commented, that no longer applies as couples can choose the order of the surnames for their children as long as it will be the same order for all their children.

(Image credit: Lover of Geography Instagram/Reddit)

You may have heard of the Open Press Project, who started a Kickstarter fundraiser five years ago for their Open Etching Press, a small printing press which utilizes intaglio and relief printing techniques so that individuals can create tiny paper prints at home.

That first project was an overwhelming success with 1,485 backers pledging a total of €121,661 out of their original goal of raising €1,000. Seeing the interest and demand of the market for this type of accessible printmaking, the Open Press team has now launched a new campaign.

With the Etching Press, one can print up to a maximum size of 7.5 x 23 cm, or about 3 x 9 inches. But people have been asking whether there was a possibility of having a printing press for larger sizes. So, they came up with a press for postcards.

As explained by Martin Schneider in their Kickstarter video, they had to redesign the structure of the press and use different metal parts as simply making the Etching Press larger wasn't sufficient to scale up the size of what it can print. The Postcard Printing Press uses the same printing techniques as the previous one but can print on a larger surface, with a size of about 4 x 9 inches.

The project launched on August 1 and will continue until August 31. So far, it has 593 backers and amassed pledges amounting to $168,563, which is about eight times the original goal of $20,000. Early bird reward tiers are all gone, and two tiers remain, one for about $256 and another for $290. Check out the Kickstarter campaign here.

(Video credit: Open Press Project/Youtube)

If you have visited Machu Picchu, then you may know the famous Inca Trail which leads right into the heart of the ancient citadel. However, there's more than one way to get to Machu Picchu, and Brook Sabin from Stuff shares their group's 12-day Inca Trail & Amazon Adventure, as well as the highlight of the trip, the Quarry Trail.

Considered as the secret Inca Trail, the Quarry Trail is more secluded with most tourists opting for the Inca Trail instead. But if you prefer taking the alternative route, discovering hidden gems along the way, then Sabin suggests you take one of the world's best walks in the Quarry Trail.

On their hike, it was just the three of them in the group, which made for a more peaceful, less crowded trek up the Andean mountains. Not only that, but their tour guide service, Intrepid Travel, who arranged their itinerary, always made sure that they were in the right condition to continue on the hike.

Every morning and evening, they would be subjected to oxygen checks to make sure that they weren't suffering from altitude sickness. They had a caravan who would set up camp for them as well as cook their meals three times a day. There was even a "toilet tent" fitted with a chemical toilet whenever they needed to go at each stop.

The route for their tour began in Lima. From there, they flew to Cusco, the starting point of their hike. On this trail, they were able to visit ancient villages like Q'orimarca and Ollantaytambo, the final destination of the hike. Afterward, they took a panoramic train and then a bus to Machu Picchu.

One other highlight from this tour package was the Amazon adventure, in which they rode a boat for two hours along the Amazon, and stayed at an eco-lodge surrounded by nature. They explored the greenery of the Amazon rainforest and capped their adventure with a nighttime river expedition. To see more photos from the trip, check out Brook Sabin's article on Stuff.

(Image credit: Brook Sabin/Stuff)

What causes riots? What makes people want to go out on the streets, inflict damage to property and other individuals, and cause havoc and mayhem through violence? Is it because rioters are continually marginalized in society and have no means of airing their grievances thus resorting to these types of violent public demonstrations? Or is it something simpler? Simon Kuper, on the Financial Times, dissects how riots begin, why they occur, and how we can respond to them.

As civilized societies, we have rules and boundaries in place to maintain peace and order among the constituents. Many democratic countries recognize what is called the right to peaceful assembly which allows citizens to gather, hold meetings, strikes, rallies, events, and even protests.

Usually, when public demonstrations happen, protesters are required to inform the local government, submit the necessary documents to apply for the particular location and time they went to section off for their public demonstration. Then, the local government will assign police units who will be on stand-by just in case things escalate and become unruly or chaotic. In such cases, the police have the right to intervene and use force if necessary.

Riots are different from these types of public demonstrations. If we look at how riots start, especially those from recent memory, they don't seem to have gone through the same channels that public demonstrations usually do. As depicted in media, they often appear as though dissidents banded together to cause mayhem and destruction, and then use political rhetoric as a ruse or a guise to justify their actions.

There are generally two rival theories when people try to put these riots into perspective and analyze how and why they began. The first one is called the "riffraff" theory which basically assumes that the perpetrators of the riots are a band of hooligans who have lost control of their behavior and want a moment of freedom, removing the "shackles" that society has placed on them.

The second theory is the "rational actor" theory, which assumes that rioters are individuals who share a common sentiment and feel as though they are the only ones who understand their plight. As such, they must take action in order to get those in authority to look their way and listen to their grievances. Over time, social scientists have shifted the rationale for riot behavior toward the second theory.

Still, which perspective one takes depends on whose side one is on. For example, the recent riots in Southport, England may be framed as people on the extreme end of the political spectrum retaliating for the crime that happened in their town. From the other's perspective, they will explain this by saying that these people are acting out of concern for the safety of citizens in the country.

From examples like this, we might be tempted to think that riots happen only because of political reasons. But that is not always the case for everyone who participates in riots.

Bill Buford, an American journalist who wrote the book Among the Thugs in 1990, wanted to know the source of football hooliganism in the UK, and why so often young British males were rioting every Saturday back in the 1980s.

What he found was that there was no reason why these young men went out and committed such violent acts. It was simply exhilarating. For anyone who feels disenfranchised or disempowered, nothing makes them feel more alive than the feeling of being in control and powerful. And the most basic show of power is through a show of force, through violence.

Not all riots are politically motivated, although it may start out with a few people airing out their grievances and finding community with those who share the same sentiments. Sprinkle in a little bit of misinformation here and there, and a few forceful words of motivation, then you have a charged band of rioters ready to take on the world.

A lot of rioters feel lonely and disregarded by society. They want that exhilaration and that sense of belonging. Social media highly influences these people with misinformation and on top of that, the isolation and loneliness will just push them to act on their impulses.

In the aftermath of the Southport riots, many of those who were arrested, after coming to their senses, admitted to their crimes. Some commenting that they had been a fool for participating in such violence and that their behavior was appalling. Others even wept after realizing what they had done.

How do we respond to these riots? How do we stop them? Some suggest to take down misinformation from social media before they even spread. Others try to launch counter-protests, protecting the groups which the rioters have targeted. But perhaps, another way, according to Kuper, is to build a sense of community that transcends ethnicity.

These riots happen because there are people who want to tear the social fabric which they feel ostracized by and have pushed them as outcasts. There may be people there who are mentally or emotionally vulnerable.

Proper communication and dialogue to build understanding between people who have differing views could be a way to deter such violent acts. Trying to engage with people on the other side of the aisle with civility and respect may be a good start. - via Marginal Revolution

(Image credit: Jonathan Harrison/Unsplash)

The last week of July, cosplayers around the globe gathered in Southern California to show off their newest looks at the 2024 San Diego Comic Con. Zeon Santos and I were lucky enough to capture the fun. Here are some of our favorite cosplay pics from the convention.

It was hot at the convention this year, so I'm sure Nick Wilde had no problem selling off Pawpsicles whether or not he had the proper permits.

And speaking of foxes, if Nick was looking for a girlfriend, he could do worse than this Foxy Tails or her friend Sonic.

If you like sexy costumes inspired by video games though, it's hard to beat this near-naked Pikachu.

Personally, I couldn't get over the intensity of this badass Storm, complete with the white eyes she gets while using her powers.

During the Constitutional Convention in 1787, our Founding Fathers hammered out the rules for running a democratic government, and it wasn't at all easy. A lot of stuff was a compromise between all the disagreeing factions. On the question of how long a president should serve, some thought it should be for life, while others suggested a six, seven, ten, or even 12-year term with no re-election. Since no one could agree, the question was sent to the “Committee on Postponed Matters,” which sounds like a good committee to be on, especially for procrastinators. However, they did come up with the four-year term with re-election possible.

As far as presidents serving two terms, that was not in the original constitution. It became a custom, though, set by Washington and Jefferson, because presidents get really tired of the job after eight years. The few who did not found that the voters got tired of them after eight years. So why do representatives and senators get to run for re-election as long as they want? Read up on what the US Founding Fathers had in mind for these offices and how our system came to be the way it is at Mental Floss.

What do you know about capybaras? They are the world's largest rodent, and I hear that they are calm, friendly, and delicious. Despite the fact that they never change their facial expressions, other animals -and humans- like being around them. The capybara will tolerate your attentions in a super-chill manner, without a thought of the possibility of being eaten for dinner. They are the very illustration of nonchalance. You might learn some more things about capybaras in this nonsense song from Jonti Picking (previously at Neatorama), like how their teeth grow all the time or how good they are at playing saxophone. But the main point is that you're going to be happy around a cappy. -via Everlasting Blort

Update on the wind turbine blade accident:

Initial investigations indicate the tractor trailer was not far enough into the left lane when navigating under the train trestle, resulting in the crash. The blade, mounted on large brackets, struck the trestle, causing the rollover.… pic.twitter.com/SCUS2ZXNsK

— Maine State Police (@MEStatePolice) August 9, 2024

Wind turbines are being installed all over the US, while the factories that make them are few. Transporting those enormous turbine blades is a real hassle. Taking them around curves and intersections required the invention of new machinery. But going under low bridges remains a challenge.

On Friday, a 240-foot blade was being taken to Columbia, Maine, when it hit a bridge over Route 1 in Stockton Springs. The collision overturned the truck and damaged the blade. No one was injured, but Route 1 was closed for the rest of the day. The blade will was returned Saturday to a cargo terminal in Searsport, Maine, where it was shipped in. The Boston Globe uses the term "storrowed," which is a unique Boston word for trucks hitting a bridge, explained in a previous post.

What do you do with a damaged turbine blade? They are made of fiberglass and resin, and were once considered impossible to recycle. But new technology is turning them into other building materials.  -via Metafilter   

The Smithsonian Institution is not only the world's largest museum, it is situated along the National Mall in our nation's capital, and admission is free. Almost everyone goes to see it sooner or later, although it's impossible to see it all in one trip. So it's no wonder that many urban legends have been attached to the institution in its 178 years. You may be familiar with some of them.

For instance, the Hope Diamond is supposed to be cursed. Sure, some bad things happened to some of the owners, but that's life among the rich and powerful. The story of the "curse" was made up by a jeweler in the early 20th century to entice a rich socialite to buy the diamond. It worked. But then what? The woman who bought the diamond experienced several tragedies, and after her death and the sale of her gems, the postal worker who delivered the Hope diamond to the Smithsonian also suffered several tragedies within the next year. He said, “If the hex is supposed to affect the owners, then the public should be having the bad luck.” I guess we know who to blame, then.

Other myths and legends about the Smithsonian are true stories that the institution had nothing to do with, or were viral hoaxes, or just plain historical misunderstandings. Yes, benefactor James Smithson's remains are at the Smithsonian Castle, just not in the rumored spot. Read the truth behind 13 Smithsonian legends at (where else?) Smithsonian. 

(Image source: Smithsonian Institution Archives)

The 1994 movie The Lion King was so successful it got two direct-to-video sequels, a Broadway musical, a "live-action" remake in 2019, various TV and video game adaptations, and now a prequel. Mufasa: The Lion King tells the story of Mufasa and Taka (who would later be known as Scar) as they grow up as inseparable brothers. We immediately learn that the two are not biologically related, which takes some of the sting out of the implied incestuous mating in the series. The movie is notable for the CGI lions that now have facial expressions, which were glaringly missing in the 2019 movie.    

Mufasa: The Lion King seems to fall into the same trope as Malificent, Joker, and the Star Wars prequels, in that since audiences loved the villain, let's go back and explain why it's not their fault that they are evil. In this case, Taka was originally the heir to the "king" position in the pride. Such antihero stories are a break from the rigid white hat/black hat dichotomy of earlier tales, but when it happens over and over again, you have to consider whether we've swung too far in the opposite direction. In this movie, the enemy is a group of white lions led by a king who is amusingly not named Kimba. Mufasa: The Lion King opens in theaters on December 20.  

"Wingnut" is mostly heard these days as a term for an unhinged political extremist. The slang term came about meaning someone who is odd or eccentric or otherwise deviates from the norm. But the real, literal wingnut is a very useful nut with wings that allows us to tighten bolts by hand. That's the kind of wingnut you'll find in the new Wingnut Museum that opened on July 13th in Berkeley, California. The origin of the museum is quite a story.

Urban Ore is a salvage yard in Berkeley that recycles building materials, furniture, housewares, and other things. An employee who goes by Neko was sorting through hardware and started lining wingnuts up on a shelf. Other employees set wingnuts alongside them until they became a collection. Customers began to donate wingnuts, too. When the shop decided to unionize, the organizers referred to the collection and chose a wingnut as their logo, as it represented both the employees and their customers. Since it was now a union symbol, the shop owners decided the collection had to go. Read how the Wingnut Museum came to be, and how you can visit and see wingnuts from all over the world at Berkeleyside.  -via Metafilter

For a large chunk of history, human mating was a matter of couple forming with family approval. In small communities, young people all knew each other growing up, as did their parents. As communities grew larger and people traveled, some cultures turned to professional matchmakers, and the upper classes and royalty arranged marriages for political or financial reasons. In America, young people got to know each other through "courting," which consisted of a young man visiting a young woman's family home, trying to impress her and her parents as well.

That changed in the 1920s, as more people had automobiles and places to go for amusement. "Dating" replaced "courting," although the origin of the word dating is more salacious than you ever knew. The custom of dating went through changes in both meaning and procedure through the rest of the 20th century, and is done quite differently in the internet age. Hey, it was easy to meet people in high school; not so much these days when careers are far from one's hometown and marriage is put off until years after graduation. Read up on how dating started and where it then went at Jstor Daily. -via Strange Company

We like to document the first of anything, and in the modern era we often over-celebrate the first time something happens, since it might not last long enough for anyone to care. It wasn't always so, like the first Air Force One, which no one though worth preserving until many years later. It's even more difficult to document the last of anything when it disappears. Who could know that this guy was the last smallpox patient until years afterward? In other cases it's obvious, like the last flight of the Concorde or the last Woolworth's lunch counter, which was preserved for nostalgia. Even the twelve stories of "the last" things in this video might prove to be wrong, if someone decides to bring an elephant to a war zone, for example.

This is actually the second compilation that Weird History has done on the last of things; check out another video from a few months ago on the same subject with 13 different items.

Look! Someone took a rock and etched a bunch of emojis on it! Well, that's certainly what it looks like, but this is a natural stone. The amazing shapes on its surface are crinoid fossils, plus some bivalve fossils. The rock is a floatstone, a type of limestone. The stone formed at the bottom of Lake Michigan, and was embossed with a hash of crinoids pieces that fell on it. The circles, and half-circles, were once parts of the tubular crinoid stem that fell to the lake floor in different states of decay and at different angles. My guess for the "teeth" shapes are a stem piece that partially split crosswise and then lengthwise as it made contact with the developing stone.

Redditor DrewHoov posted this image on the subreddit r/whatsthisrock. To my surprise, no one in the comments suggested this was Photoshopped. I guess only real rockhounds follow the subreddit. We have to remember, our emojis, and symbolism altogether, are based mostly on things that our natural world produces.  

This video contains NSFW language. The new movie Saturday Night is about the beginning of the TV show Saturday Night Live, or actually the run up to the first show on October 11, 1975. It was an audacious idea, doing cutting-edge comedy in a live broadcast with an ensemble of young unknown improvisational actors and counterculture writers. No one involved with the production had any idea if it would work. We know it did, because SNL is going into its 50th season next month. But what everyone wants to see in this trailer was whether they could cast young actors that could pull off the unforgettable real characters: John Belushi, Dan Aykroyd, Gilda Radner, Jane Curtin, Garrett Morris, Laraine Newman, and Chevy Chase, plus Lorne Michaels, who is still running the show. It looks like they did pretty well, since they don't have to introduce any of them. Saturday Night will open on October 11 at a theater near you. -via Digg